 斯里兰卡民主社会主义共和国 The Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka .代码LK rk
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国旗 日ie
斯里兰卡国旗呈横长方形，长与宽之比约为２∶１。旗面四周的黄色边框和框内靠左侧的黄色竖条，将整个旗面划分为左右结构的框架。左边框内是绿色和橙色的两个竖长方形；右侧为咖啡色长方形，中间是一头紧握战刀的黄色狮子，长方形的四角各有一片菩提树叶。咖啡色代表僧伽罗族，占全国人口的７２％；橙、绿色代表少数民族；黄色边框象征人民追求光明和幸福。菩提树叶表示对佛教的信仰，而其形状又和该国国土轮廓相似；狮子图案标志着该国的古称“狮子国”，也象征刚强和勇敢。 要 g
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斯里兰卡国徽图案中圆面的中心为一头狮子，其形象寓意同国旗。狮子周围环绕着１６朵荷花瓣，象征圣洁、吉祥；花瓣又为两穗稻谷环绕，象征着丰收。图案下端是一只花碗，碗里装着庙花；花碗两侧分别为太阳和月亮图案。国徽顶端为象征宗教信仰的佛教法轮；永远转动的法轮，还象征国家如日月一样永存。 Aj
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国际 生2电话码 94月3ho
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１９４８年２月４日c
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国庆日 来个
２月４日（１９４８年） 人ym
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斯里兰卡卢比 cz
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人口来个
1988万（2006年）。僧伽罗族占74%，泰米尔族1 生08%，摩尔族7%，其他1%。僧伽罗语、泰米尔语B同为官方语言和 6C全国语言，上层社会通用英语。居民69%信奉 人天佛教，15%信奉印度教，8%信奉基督教，7%信奉伊斯兰教。 一o在
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首都 sBw们
科伦坡 colombo 素有“东方十字路口”之称，从中世纪起，这里就是世界上重要的商港之一，在世界上享有盛誉的兰卡宝石，便是从这里源源不断地输往海外。热带季风气候，年均气温２８℃。有人口２２３.４万（２００１年）。 要Bd
这年a月
国家政要 lq
总统马欣达·拉贾帕克萨 Mahinda Rajapaksa，2005年11月就职。同年11月21日，拉贾帕克萨总统任命拉特纳西里·维克拉马纳亚克 Ratnasiri Wickramanayaka为政府总理。 sq
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南亚次大陆南端印度洋上的岛国，西北隔保克海峡与印度半岛相望。接近赤道，终年如夏，年平均气温28℃。各地年平均降水量1283-3321毫米不等。风景秀丽，素有“印度洋上的珍珠”之称。时我自
8春时
1500年前，来自北印度的雅利安人移民至锡兰岛建立了僧伽罗王朝。公元前247年，印度孔雀王朝的阿育王派其子来岛弘扬佛教，受到当地国王的欢迎，从此僧伽罗人摈弃婆罗门教而改信佛教。公元前2世纪前后，南印度的泰米尔人也开始迁徙并定居锡兰岛。从公元5世纪至16世纪，岛内僧伽罗王国和泰米尔王国之间征战不断。16世纪起先后被葡萄牙和荷兰人统治。18世纪末成为英国殖民地。1948年2月获得独立，定国名锡兰。1972年5月22日改称斯里兰卡共和国。1978年8月16日改国名为斯里兰卡民主社会主义共和国。以w4
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政治 dD
总统为国家元首、政府首脑和武装部队总司全令，享有任命总理和内阁其他成员的权力。20D05年，斯里兰卡举行第五届总统选举。执政的自由党候选人、时任总理 yh马欣达·拉贾帕克萨胜出，于11月19日宣誓就中职，任期6年。11月21日，拉贾帕克萨总统任命拉特纳西里·维克拉马纳亚克 RaBtnasiri Wickramanayaka为何为如政府总理。维同日宣誓就职，第二何A自次出任总理。 来是 1是
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习俗 要4
斯里兰卡是一个信仰佛教的国家，许多说何C的习俗都与佛教有关，在斯里兰卡佛教僧侣是备受尊敬的，斯里兰卡居民和佛教僧侣对话时，不论是站着，还是坐着，都设法略低于僧侣的头部，更不能用北美文学网左手拿东西递给佛教僧侣和信徒。在参观佛国教寺院时，不能对佛像做踩、跨、骑等无礼动作，而且进入寺院，要赤脚，不可穿何来e鞋和袜子，也不可 生以带帽子。
斯里兰卡的居民与人初次见面，多采用握手、双手合十的方法来打招呼，双手在面部合十是最为规范的做法。斯里兰卡人喜欢红色、白色、黄色等颜色，更视乌鸦为吉祥物，喜欢用燃灯的方式来庆祝开业、奠基、宗教仪式等。斯里兰卡人的婚俗比较特别，以僧伽罗人的婚俗为代表，男女双方先订亲，确定婚期后，互换戒指，结婚当日，有小舅子为新郎洗脚、系“同心结”、打破椰子等习俗，而真正的礼成是在新娘在结婚礼台上，在腰上围上新郎所送的花布、头上戴上新郎所送的鱼形发卡之后。在斯里兰卡的中部山区目前还存在着一妻多夫制。 slo
值得注意的是在斯里兰卡，点头和摇头的含义与中国相反，点头是表示不是，摇头则表示是。斯里兰卡人吃饭是用右手的拇指、食指、中指这三根指头拿起食物食用，给当地人送礼物时，不要送花，吃饭和接受礼物时，都要用右手。 国如
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宪法 y3j9
现行宪法于1978年9月7日生效，为斯历史上第在四部宪法，改议会制为总统制。1982年后曾多1fC次修改宪法，将议会任期由6年改为任满时可国通过公民投票决定是否延长。宪法规定，斯所有官员，包括议员在内，必须宣誓反对分裂主义，维护日国家统一。上
2要
议会 一
斯议会为一院制，由225名议员组成，任期6年。本届议会于2004年4月选出，席位分布情况为：统一人民自由联盟105席，统一国民阵线82席，泰米尔全国联盟22席，全国僧伽罗传统党9席，穆斯林大会党5席，高地人民阵线1席，伊拉姆人民民主党1席。2005年6月，人民解放阵线（占议会39席）退出统一人民自由联盟，致使由执政党斯自由党率领的统一人民自由联盟沦为议会少数派。现任议长罗库班达拉 W. J. M. Lokubandara于2004年4月宣誓就职。i花0
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文化教育时 A
民族文化历史悠久，深受佛教影响。政府一贯重视教育，自1945年起实行幼儿园到大学的免费教育。2004年居民识字率达92.5%。主要大学有佩拉德尼亚大学和科伦坡大学。全国有大学30所，中小学10.7万所，在校学生430万多人，教师20万人。Dt
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新闻出版来春
全国有报刊200余种，4个报业系统：(1)锡兰如联合报业公司：通称湖滨大厦，1918年创办，1973年7月由政府接管。出版5种日报、3北美枫说来种星期日日报和10多种周刊。主要报刊有《每中日新闻》，是斯最大的英文日报；《每日太7阳报》，是最大的僧伽罗文日报之一。(2)乌天帕里集团报业公司：1981年11月创办。出版日的报、星期日日报、周刊各2种。主要报刊《岛的报》为英、僧文日报，发行量很大。(3)维贾亚报业公司 C他：1990年创办。主要报刊有僧伽罗文日报《兰卡之光》和英文《星期日时报》。(4)快快报业公司：1930年创办，私营。出版泰米尔文报刊，《雄狮报》为最大的泰米尔文日报。l 1以
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兰卡通讯社：1978年由几家报业公司联合创办的半官方新闻机构。上B春
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斯里兰卡广播公司：原名 生天锡兰电以台，1967年改用现名，系官方广播电台。u
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斯里兰卡电视台北美枫b如：系国家电视台。1982年开播，是斯最大的电u视台，每天用英、僧、泰三种语言播出。 人d 北美枫的
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二、政府北美枫
[编辑本段]e花月
2007年1月，拉贾帕克萨总统改组内阁。主要内阁部长有：总理兼任内部行政部长拉特纳西里·维克拉马纳亚克，国家遗产部长阿努拉·班达拉奈克（Anura Bandaranaike），卫生医疗与营养部长尼玛尔·希里帕拉·德·席尔瓦（Nimal Siripala de Silva），石油与石油资源开发部长法齐（A.H.M. Fowzie），外交部长罗希塔·波格拉加马（Rohitha Bogollagama），公路与道路发展部长杰亚拉贾·费尔南多普勒（Jeyaraj Fernandopulle），教育部长苏锡尔·普雷马贾彦塔（Susil Premajayantha），公共管理与内政部长卡鲁·贾亚苏里亚（Karu Jayasuriya），邮政与电信部长劳夫·哈基姆（Rauff Hakeem），城市发展与圣地发展部长迪内什·古纳瓦德纳（Dinesh Gunawardena），科学技术部长蒂萨·维塔拉纳（Tissa Witarana），电力与能源部长约翰·塞纳维拉特纳（John Seneviratne），企业发展与投资促进部长萨拉特·阿穆拉加马（Sarath Amunugama），旅游部长马林达·莫拉高达（Milinda Moragoda）,文化部长马欣达·亚帕·阿贝瓦德纳（Mahinda Yapa Abeywardena），灌溉与水利管理部长查马·拉贾帕克萨（Chamal Rajapaksa），工业发展部长库马拉·维加马（Kumara Welgama），运输部长达拉斯·阿拉哈普鲁马（Dallas Alahapperuma），司法部长阿马拉西里·多丹高达（Amarasiri Dodangoda）。 h月
为q 有如
行政区划 来上
全国分为9个省和25个县。9个省分别为西方省、中央省、南方省、西北省、北方省、北中央省、东方省、乌瓦省和萨巴拉加穆瓦省。 北美文学网
司法机构 为l 为i
司法机构由三部分组成：法院，包括最高法院、上诉法院、高级法院和地方法院等；司法部，负责司法行政工作；司法委员会，负责法院人事和纪律检查。最高法院首席法官南达·席尔瓦(S.Nanda Silva)。9 lb
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三、政党全要
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要要
（1）斯里兰卡自由党 Sri Lanka Freedom Party：1951年9月由所罗门·班达拉奈克创建。现有党员约65万。奉行开放的市场经济政策和不结盟的外交政策。曾于1956、1961和1970年三次执政。1981、1984和1993年先后三次分裂。1993年起联合其他小党组成人民联盟，在1994和2000年议会选举中获胜。2004年，该党与人民解放阵线组成统一人民自由联盟在议会选举中获得多数席位，再次上台执政。目前，主席为马欣达·拉贾帕克萨（Mahinda Rajapaksa），总书记迈特里帕拉·西里塞纳（Maithripala Sirisena）。大 有r
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（2）人民解放阵线 Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna，Peo年日如ple’s Liberation Front,成立于1970年，主要成员来 个时自当时的锡兰共产党。直至上世纪90年代初，是该党一直坚持武装斗D争。90年代以来调整政策，选择议会斗争道路，主张“月建立社会主义政府”、“运用人民赋予的权力为人民谋福利”、“追求经济平等”，外g交上主张改善和发展与邻国的关系，反对别北美文学网国干涉斯内部事务。领袖为阿马拉辛哈（Somawansa Amarasinghe），总书记蒂尔文·席9瓦（Ti和lvin Silva）上
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（3）统一国民党 United National Party：1946年9月6日成立，拥有党员约140万。主张自由竞争、对外开放的经济政策和不结盟的外交政策。领袖拉尼尔·维克拉马辛哈，副领袖卡鲁·贾亚苏里亚(Karu Jayasuriya)，主席马立克·萨马拉维克拉马（Malik Samarawickrema），总书记塞纳拉特·卡普科土瓦（Senerath Kapukotuwa）。时个
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其它政党和组织还有全国僧伽罗僧侣党 1来、锡兰工人大会党、穆斯林大会党、全国统一联盟、高地人民阵线、伊拉姆人民民主党的和斯里兰卡共如产党等。zwu
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四、和和平进程t
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斯僧伽罗族和泰米尔族间的冲突已持续20多年，造成近7万人死亡。2002年2月，在挪威斡旋下，斯冲突双方签署《永久停火协议》，并先后举行6轮和谈。2003年4月，“猛虎”退出和谈，和平进程宣告中断。2006年2月，斯政府和“猛虎”在日内瓦举行了2003年和谈中断后的首次高级别直接会谈，但双方在一些实质问题上未能达成一致。同年10月在日内瓦举行的第二轮和谈亦无果而终。2005年底以来，斯政府与“猛虎”组织冲突不断。B一 为n
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国际社会普遍支持斯和平进程。美国、挪威、日本等国一直在积极斡旋，并允向斯提供人道主义及经济重建援助，争取双方重新回到谈判桌上来。2002年11月、2003年4月、6月和2005年6月，援斯东京会议(联席方为美国,欧盟,日本和挪威)分别在奥斯陆、华盛顿、东京和布鲁塞尔举行。t要
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五、重要人物个以
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马欣达·拉贾帕克萨w有上
总统，生于1945年11月18日，僧伽罗族，佛教徒，自由党主席。其父D·A·拉贾帕克萨曾任副议长，为自由党创始人之一。毕业于科伦坡法学院，获律师资格。1970年作为自由党候选人当选议员，成为当时最年轻议员。1989年再次当选议员，并担任议会人权委员会秘书。1994年出任劳工、职业培训部长，后转任渔业和水产资源发展部长。2000年10月任自由党副主席。2002年2月任反对党领袖。2004年4月被库马拉通加总统任命为政府总理。在2005年11月第5届总统选举中获胜，当选斯第6任总统。 Au
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拉特纳西里·维克拉马纳亚克C以
总理，生于1933年5月5日，僧伽罗族，佛教徒，自由党资深成员。早年就读于科伦坡阿南达中学，后赴英国林肯学院学习法律，毕业后获律师资格。1965年和1970年两次大选均当选议员，后历任司法部长、公安部长、佛教事务部长、农业部长等职。2000年8月，接替辞职的班夫人就任总理，直至2001年12月。2005年11月，被新当选的总统拉贾帕克萨任命为总理。 国如
北美枫春
罗库班达拉在月
议长，生于1941年8月5日，僧伽罗人，统一国m民党资深党员。罗曾获伦敦大学学士学位和佩拉德尼亚大学荣誉学位。1977天年参加议会选举后正式步入政界，历任本土 生d医药部长及文化、教育和媒体部长。2001年统 C要一国民党赢得大选后，罗出任议员领袖和司法兼佛l教事务部长。2004年4月22日，当选为斯第13届国国民议会议全a生长。
北美枫t1北美枫
罗希塔·波格拉加马7这
外长，生于1954年8月6日，佛教徒，统一国民党议员。从业法律30余年，精通商业和贸易法，担任斯政府和多家外国组织机构的法律顾问。曾任斯投资局主席，在促进外国直接投资和工业发展发面成绩显著。2005年11月出任企业发展与投资促进部长。2006年代表斯政府与“猛虎”组织在日内瓦举行和谈。2007年1月出任外长。
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六、经济 一 何
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以种植园经济为主，主要作物有茶叶、橡胶、椰子和稻米。工业基础薄弱，以农产品和服装加工业为主。在南亚国家中，率先实行经济自由化政策。经过10多年经济改革，斯国有化经济管理模式已打破，市场经济格局基本形成。近年来，斯经济保持中速增长。天t
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2004年底海啸灾害中，全国三分之二的沿海地区受灾，3.5万人死亡，5600余人失踪，100多万人无家可归。斯政府估计灾后重建需3-5年时间，耗资约22亿美元。2006年斯国民经济保持较快增长。f
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2006年主要北美文学网经8e9济数据：全如v人说何
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国内生产总值：269亿美元i的
人均北美文学网国内 一0生产总值：1355美元 个全人a5
国内生产总值增长率：7.4％不何k
货币名称：卢比（Rupee）9他
汇率（2006年平均值）：1美元=104卢比了天
失业率：6.5% 何m
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资源 gc
主要矿藏有石墨、宝石、钛铁、锆石、云母等。石墨、宝石、云母等已开采。渔业、林业和水力资源丰富。 为和和
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工业7
工业主要有纺织、服装、皮革、食品、饮料、烟草、造纸、木材、化工、石油加工、橡胶、塑料和金属加工及机器装配等工业，大多集中于科伦坡地区。2006年工业产值41.6亿美元，占GDP的15.5％。 国我来
x
农业 n月b年D以
可耕地面积400万公顷，已利用200万公顷。农业人口(包括林、牧、渔业)占全国总人口的72.2%。主要作物为茶叶、橡胶、椰子等。2006年农业产值56亿美元，占GDP的20.8％。
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旅游业是说日a
旅游业是斯经济的重要组成部分。游客主要来自欧洲、印度、东南亚等国家和地区。斯内战曾一度影响旅游业，但自和平进程取得进展以来，游客人数有所回升。斯2003-2005连续三年年到访外国游客数量突破50万人。自2005年底，斯政府军与“猛虎”冲突对旅游业造成一定冲击。i 北美文学网m
o 8j
交通运输 x
全国有公路2.8万公里，铁路1944公里。主要港口有科伦坡、高尔和亭可马里。科伦坡机场为国际机场。兰卡航空公司经营国际航空业务。cw来
北美枫v了
财政金融们 生人
2006年财政收入4457亿卢比，财政支出7328亿卢比，财政赤字2871亿卢比。天u
这7
对外贸易北美枫大的 sf
实行自由外贸政策，除政府控制石油外，其他商品均可自由进口。主要出口商品有纺织品、服装、茶叶、橡胶、椰子和石油产品。近年来，出口贸易结构发生根本变化，由过去的农产品为主转变为以工业产品为主。主要出口对象是美国、英国、印度、德国、比利时、日本等，主要进口对象是印度、新加坡、香港、伊朗等。w风 北美枫年
北美文学网有上
近年外贸情况如下（单位：亿美元）9要
g我日
年份 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 为7他
不z4
总 额 108.04 118.05 137.57 152.10 171.36 日d花人
BC l以
出口额 46.99 51.33 57.57 63.47 68.83个n来8
是 l花
进口额 61.05 66.72 80.00 88.63 102.53风wb
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差 额 -14.06 -15.39 -22.43 -25.16 -33.70 g dw
k 为和
外国资本天 s中
政他府实行保护和吸引外资的政策。全国已建立4 一无个自由贸易区。外资主要来自日本、澳大利来亚、德国、挪威、瑞典和中国台湾。2006年外国直接投资约4.5亿美元。我山要天
何自
外国援助北美文学网 g
外援在斯经济生活中作用2突出。斯几乎所有大型项目均依靠外援兴建和。向斯提供援助的国家和国际组织有30多个，主要有日本、德国、美国是、英国、挪威全qh、加拿大、荷兰及世界银行和亚 ro洲开发银行等。 v
北美枫来北美枫山了
人民生活上自
政府长期以来实行大米补贴、免费教育和全m民免费医疗等项福利措施。全国有医院500多所，床位55000多个。医疗开支占国民生产总值的1.69％，占政ms人府总开支的7.2％。人均寿命男性为71.7g岁，女u性为7 个在6.4岁。北美文学网年这c
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七、军事天
[编辑本段] 来山以
个 何
斯里兰卡陆、空军建于1949年，海军建于1950 来t年。总统为武装力量总司令。最高国防决策中机构为国家安全委员会，成员有国防部长，陆、海、空三军司令x，警察总监等，主席由总统兼任。国防部为q最高军事行政机构。武装力量由正规军和警察组成。正规军分陆、海、空三个军种。总统通过国家安全委员会、国防部和陆海不空三军内我85部对全军实施领导和指挥。陆军司令萨拉特e·丰塞卡 Lt. Gener 来在al Sarath Fonseka，海军司令瓦桑塔·卡拉纳 来8高达 Vice Admir 一cal Wasantha Karannagoda，空军司令古纳提拉克 A小ir Marshgal WDRMJ Goonetileke。的来
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总兵力约17万人。陆军13.5万，海军2万人，空军1.5万人，另有警察、国民辅助志愿队和家乡卫队约8万人。Bb
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八、对外关系h小D
[编辑本段] l2是
奉行独立和不结盟的外交政策，支持和平共处五项原则，反对各种形式的帝国主义、殖民主义、种族主义和大国霸权主义，维护斯里兰卡独立、主权和领土完整，不允许外国对斯内政和外交事务进行干涉。关心国际和地区安全，主张全面彻底裁军，包括全球核裁军以及建立国际政治、经济新秩序。坚决反对国际恐怖主义，1998年1月签署了联合国反恐怖爆炸公约，成为该公约的第一个签字国。积极推动南亚区域合作。外交重点是在解决国内民族问题上寻求国际社会的理解和支持。在联合国和南盟等组织内呼吁加强国际反恐合作。已同130多个国家建立了外交关系。以在
月花这
同中国双边关系 st风
和花B
1、双边政治关系了m
中斯友好交往历史悠久。中国史称斯里兰卡为师（狮）子国或僧伽罗国。公元410年，中国晋代高僧法显从印度赴斯游学两年，取回佛教经典并著有《佛国记》一书。明代航海家郑和曾多次抵斯。15世纪，斯一王子访问北京，回国途中在福建泉州定居，被明皇赐姓为世，其后代现仍在泉州和台湾定居。斯沦为西方殖民地后，中斯关系一度中断。r年自上
北美文学网自
1950年斯政府承认新中国。1957年2月7日两国建交。此后，中斯一直保持着友好关系，高层往来不断。周恩来总理（1957、1964）、邓颖超副委员长（1977）、耿飚副总理（1978）、黄华副总理兼外长（1981）、吴学谦国务委员兼外长（1985）、李先念主席（1986）、李鹏总理（1990）、钱其琛副总理兼外长（1994）、陈慕华副委员长（1997）、李瑞环政协主席（1999）、朱镕基总理（2001）、贾庆林政协主席（2003）、中央纪委书记吴官正（2004）、温家宝总理（2005）、唐家璇国务委员（2006）先后访斯。斯里兰卡总理班达拉奈克夫人（1961、1972）、总统贾亚瓦德纳（1984）、总理普雷马达萨（1979、1988）、总理维杰通加（1989）、外长卡迪加马（1995、1998）、总统库马拉通加夫人（1996、2005）、总理维克拉马辛哈（2003）、总理维克拉马纳亚克（2006）、议长罗库班达拉（2006）、外长萨马拉维拉（2006）、总统拉贾帕克萨（2007）等先后访华。i是
个了
2006年，中斯关系继续健康、顺利发展，高层互访频繁，各领域互利合作不断扩大。3月14至15日，国务委员唐家璇访问斯里兰卡,分别会见总统马欣达·拉贾帕克萨、反对党统一国民党副领袖卡鲁·贾亚苏里亚等领导人。双方宣布2007年为“中斯友好年”，并签署《中华人民共和国政府和斯里兰卡民主社会主义共和国政府经济技术合作协定》和中方向斯援助物资举办南亚运动会的换文。两国企业还就斯里兰卡普特拉姆燃煤电站项目正式签署商务和技术合同。4月12至15日，中共中央书记处书记、中央纪委副书记何勇率中共代表团访斯，分别拜会拉贾帕克萨总统和维克拉马纳亚克总理，并会见斯自由党总书记西里塞纳和自由党副主席塞纳维拉特纳等。4月21至23日，斯里兰卡总理拉特纳西里·维克拉马纳亚克来华出席博鳌亚洲论坛2006年年会，国家副主席曾庆红予以会见。会后，维一行于23至26日赴西安和上海参观访问。6月25至30日，斯里兰卡议长罗库班达拉访华，全国人大常委会委员长吴邦国和副委员长许嘉璐分别会见并宴请，罗一行并赴上海和杭州参观访问。7月12日至16日，斯里兰卡外长曼格拉·萨马拉维拉访华，拜会国务院总理温家宝，与李肇星外长举行会谈，并分别会见交通部、商务部、国家旅游局等部委领导人。萨还在中国国际问题研究所就“中国政治经济发展背景下的中斯关系未来走向”发表了专题演讲。访问后，双方发表《联合新闻公报》。2007年2月26日至3月4日，斯里兰卡总统马欣达·拉贾帕克萨对中国进行国事访问。国家主席胡锦涛与拉总统举行会谈，全国人大常委会委员长吴邦国和国务院总理温家宝分别会见，全国政协主席贾庆林与拉总统共同出席中斯建交50周年暨“中斯友好年”庆祝招待会。拉贾帕克萨总统代表斯里兰卡政府和人民向中国政府和人民赠送了一头小象、一尊佛像和眼角膜。拉一行并赴上海、广州和三峡参观访问。 国 sD
1d了
斯政府一贯奉行对华友好政策，长期以来在台湾、西藏、人权等问题上给予中国支持。两国在许多重大国际和地区问题上拥有共识，合作良好。不说
7
2、双边经贸关系和经济技术合作 生自 来月
时 来z
1952年，斯在未与我建交的情况下，不4顾美等西方国家对中国的封锁，同中国签订上了米胶贸易协定，开创了中斯两国友好的经贸合作史。 Cy的
从1953年至1982年，中斯贸易为记帐贸易。1983年，两国贸易开始以现汇方式结算。据中国海关总署统计，2006年中斯双边贸易额为11.4亿美元，增长16.9%。其中我出口11.1亿美元，进口0.3亿美元，同比分别增长17.7%和下降4.8%。D
目前，我从斯进口的主要产品有橡胶及其制品、红茶、宝石和椰油等，主要出口产品有纺织品、机电产品、建材、小五金、医药等。目前，我一些名牌产品，如海尔、轻骑摩托车等开始进入斯市场。
中斯互利经济合作始于1982年。截至2006年10月，我在斯累计签订承包工程与劳务合作合同额12.9亿美元，完成营业额7.9亿美元。其中，承包工程合同额12.6亿美元，完成营业额7.6亿美元。
在 截至2006年9月，中方在斯协议投资金额2258月万美元。斯在华投资项目40个，合同额3520万北美文学网美元，实q际投资1453万美元。nb上
花1r
三、重要双边协议及文件j 北美文学网了
春
1952年 《米胶协定》 为我
1956年 《中华人民共和国政府代表团和锡兰政府代表团联合公报》要自
1957年 《中华人民共和国总理周恩来和锡兰总理班达拉奈克联合声明》和
1963年 《中华人民共和国政 lo府和锡兰联合公D报》北美文学网个
1964年 《中锡联合公报》 何k
1972年 《中华人民共和国和斯里兰卡共和国联合公报》i v
2003年 《中华人民共和国外交部和斯里兰卡民主社会主义共和国政府外交部关于双边磋商的议定书》及《中华人民共和国政府和斯里兰卡民主社会主义共和国政府关于对所得避免双重征税和防止偷漏税的协定》Du
2005年4月 《中华人民共和国政府和斯里兰卡民主社会主义共和国政府联合公报》 一z
2005年9月 《中华人民共和国和斯里兰卡民主社会主义共和国联合公报》是大
2007年2月 《中华人民共和国与斯里兰卡民主社会主义共和国联合新闻公报》来k
1h
和其他国家关系t
他北美文学网
1、同美国的关系 g上
美是斯主要的援助国和最大的贸易伙伴。美对斯政府坚持经济改革、平衡推行民主进程表示满意。美支持斯政府政治解决民族问题的立场。1997年，美宣布“猛虎”为恐怖组织。2004年底海啸灾难发生后，美在斯救灾和灾后重建中发挥了积极作用。2006年1月，斯外长萨马拉维拉访美，分别会见了美国务卿赖斯等官员。6月，美主管南亚和中亚事务的助理国务卿鲍彻访斯，会见了斯总统和总理。鲍在会后对斯媒体表示，“‘猛虎’必须放弃恐怖手段，认识到只有通过政治途径才能解决冲突。”12月，斯陆军司令丰塞卡访美，会见美国务院副国务卿伯恩斯以及国防部官员，重申斯政府致力于政治解决民族问题的立场。 g
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2、同印度的关系大 v
斯里兰卡与印度有着悠久的历史和地缘联系。同印保持友好关系是斯外交政策的重点。斯主张全球范围内的核裁军，但不反对印成为核国家。双方重视经济合作，希望通过双方的经济合作带动南盟合作的起步。印支持斯和平解决民族冲突。2006年，斯印关系稳步发展。1月底至2月初，印空军司令塔吉对斯进行友好访问，拜会了斯总统、总理、国防部常秘以及三军司令等。5月，斯外长萨马拉维拉访印，会见印外交国务部长夏尔马，通报了斯和平进程的进展情况，并表示国际社会必须向“猛虎”组织施压，迫其重回谈判桌。7月，印度总理特别代表、外秘萨仁山访斯，与斯总统就斯国内局势举行了磋商，斯外长、外秘、三军总参谋长等参加。8月，斯外长萨马拉维拉再次访印。11月，印度新任外秘梅农访斯，分别会见了斯总统、总理、外长和国防部常秘等。同月，斯总统拉贾帕克萨访印，期间作为主宾出席了亚洲市长会议，与辛格总理举行会谈，并会见了印国大党领袖索尼娅·甘地、外长慕克吉和国家安全顾问纳拉亚南。f在
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3、同南盟的关系我k 何
斯重视南亚区域合作，积极支持和参与南盟如的各项活动。1998年7月，南盟第10届首脑会议在斯举行。斯积极推动南盟国家发展合作关n系，强调经济发展是南盟的首要任务，为此需要一个和平、安定的地区环境。2003年2月，小南盟文化部长会议在科伦坡举行。2 y全005年11月，斯总统库马拉通加夫人率团出席在孟加拉首都达卡举行的第13届南盟峰会花。2007年4月，斯总统拉贾帕克萨出席在新德里月举行的第14届日南北美文学网盟峰会。
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气候类型f他
热带季风性气候。沿海地区平均最高气7温31.3摄氏度，平均最低气温23.8摄8小何氏度。山区平均最高气温26.1摄氏度，平均最低气温16.5摄氏度。斯无四季之分，只有雨季f有国和旱花季的差别，雨季为每年5月至8月和11月至次年2我春4月，即西南季风和东北季风经过斯里兰卡时 个花。全年降雨量西南部为2，540毫米至 yf5，0870毫米，西北部和东南部则少全上时于1，250毫米。以
Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka (Sinhalese: , Tamil: இலங்கை; known as Ceylon before 1972) is an island nation in South Asia, located about 31 kilometres (19.3 mi) off the southern coast of India. It is home to around twenty million people.花r的
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Because of its location in the path of major sea routes, Sri Lanka is a strategic naval link between West Asia and South East Asia, and has been a center of Buddhist religion and culture from ancient times. Today, the country is a multi-religious and multi-ethnic nation, with more than a quarter of the population following faiths other than Buddhism, notably Hinduism, Christianity and Islam. The Sinhalese community forms the majority of the population, with Tamils, who are concentrated in the north and east of the island, forming the largest ethnic minority. Other communities include the Muslim Moors and Malays and the Burghers.D s月
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Famous for the production and export of tea, coffee, coconuts and rubber, Sri Lanka boasts a progressive and modern industrial economy and the highest per capita income in South Asia. The natural beauty of Sri Lanka's tropical forests, beaches and landscape, as well as its rich cultural heritage, make it a world famous tourist destination.u
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After over two thousand years of rule by local kingdoms, parts of Sri Lanka were colonized by Portugal and the Netherlands beginning in the 16th century, before the control of the entire country was ceded to the British Empire in 1815. During World War II, Sri Lanka served as an important base for Allied forces in the fight against the Japanese Empire.[4] A nationalist political movement arose in the country in the early 20th century with the aim of obtaining political independence, which was eventually granted by the British after peaceful negotiations in 1948.jwq
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In ancient times, Sri Lanka was known by a variety of names: ancient Greek geographers called it Taprobane[5] and Arabs referred to it as Serendib (the origin of the word "serendipity").[6] Ceilão was the name given to Sri Lanka by the Portuguese when they arrived on the island in 1505,[7] which was transliterated into English as Ceylon.[8] In 1972, the official name of the country was changed to "Free, Sovereign and Independent Republic of Sri Lanka" (in Sinhala śrī laṃkā, IPA: [ˌʃɾiːˈlaŋkaː]; whereas the island itself is referred to as ලංකාව laṃkāva, IPA: [laŋˈkaːʋə], in Tamil இலங்கை ilaṅkai, iˈlaŋgai). In 1978 it was changed to "Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka".[9]他
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The current name is derived from Sanskrit word laṃkā, meaning "resplendent land",[10] which was also the name of the island as described in the ancient Indian epics Mahabharata and the Ramayana. The word "Sri" is a Sanskrit title of veneration.e
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Main article: History of S2ri Lanka g
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Landing of King Vijaya depicted in an Ajanta fresco.History of Sri Lankacf
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Prehistory of Sri Lanka Az
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Paleolithic human settlements have been discovered at excavations in several cave sites in the Western Plains region and the South-western face of the Central Hills region. Anthropologists believe that some discovered burial rites and certain decorative artifacts exhibit similarities between the first inhabitants of the island and the early inhabitants of Southern India. Recent bioanthropological studies have however dismissed these links, and have placed the origin of the people to the northern parts of India. One of the first written references to the island is found in the Indian epic Ramayana, which described the emperor Ravana as monarch of the powerful kingdom of Lanka, which was created by the divine sculptor Vishwakarma for Kubera, the treasurer of the Gods.[11] English historian James Emerson Tennent also theorized Galle, a southern city in Sri Lanka, was the ancient seaport of Tarshish from which King Solomon is said to have drawn ivory, peacocks and other valuables. The main written accounts of the country's history are the Buddhist chronicles of Mahavansa and Dipavamsa. 一北美枫有来
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The earliest-known inhab北美枫天ritants of the island now known as Sri Lanka were probably tjhe ancestors of the Wanniyala-Aetto people, also known as Vzeddahs and number说ing roughly 3,000. Linguistic a konalysis has found a correlation of the Sinhalese language wuith the languages of the Sindh and Gujarat, although most historians believe that the Sinhala community emerged well a北美文学网fter the assimilation of various ethnic groups. From the anucient period date some remarkable archaeological sites inclBuding the ruins of Sigiriya, the so-called "Fortress in the Sky", and huge public works. Among the latter are large "tganks" or reservoirs, important for conserving water in a cl天imate that alternates rainy seasons with dry times, and ela上borate aqueducts, some with a slope as finely calibrated asB one inch to the mile. Ancient Sri Lanka was also the first月 in the world to have established a dedicated hospital in Mm为rihintale in C有the 4th century BCE. Ancient Sri Lanka was also the world's leading exporter of cinnamon, which was exported toz Egypt as early as 1400 BCE. r6 Sri 北美枫如Lanka was also the first Asian nation to have a female rule是r in Queen Anula (479–42 BC)5 A
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Sri Lankan coin, 1st century CE.Since ancient times Sri Lanka was ruled by monarchs, most notably of the Sinha royal dynasty that lasted over 2000 years. The island was also infrequently invaded by South Indian kingdoms and parts of the island were ruled intermittently by the Chola dynasty, the Pandya dynasty, the Chera dynasty and the Pallava dynasty. The island was also invaded by the kingdoms of Kalinga (modern Orissa) and those from the Malay Peninsula. Buddhism arrived from India in the 3rd century BCE, brought by Bhikkhu Mahinda, who is believed to have been the son of Mauryan emperor Ashoka. Mahinda's mission won over the Sinhalese monarch Devanampiyatissa of Mihintale, who embraced the faith and propagated it throughout the Sinhalese population. The Buddhist kingdoms of Sri Lanka would maintain a large number of Buddhist schools and monasteries, and support the propagation of Buddhism into Southeast Asia. sy花d
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Sri Lanka had always been an important port and trading post in the ancient world, and was increasingly frequented by merchant ships from the Middle East, Persia, Burma, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia and other parts of Southeast Asia. The islands were known to the first European explorers of South Asia and settled by many groups of Arab and Malay merchants. A Portuguese colonial mission arrived on the island in 1505 headed by the Lourenço de Almeida the son of Francisco de Almeida. At that point the island consisted of three kingdoms, namely Kandy in the central hills, Kotte at the Western coast, and Yarlpanam (Anglicised Jaffna) in the north. The Dutch arrived in the 17th century. Although much of the island came under the domain of European powers, the interior, hilly region of the island remained independent, with its capital in Kandy. The British East India Company established control of the island in 1796, declaring it a crown colony in 1802, although the island would not be officially connected with British India. The fall of the kingdom of Kandy in 1815 unified the island under British rule.全
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Sigiriya Rock Fortress.European colonists established a series of tea, cinnamon, rubber, sugar, coffee and indigo plantations. The British also brought a large number of indentured workers from Tamil Nadu to work in the plantation economy. The city of Colombo was established as the administrative centre, and the British established modern schools, colleges, roads and churches that brought Western-style education and culture to the native people. Increasing grievances over the denial of civil rights, mistreatment and abuse of natives by colonial authorities gave rise to a struggle for independence in the 1930s, when the Youth Leagues opposed the "Ministers' Memorandum," which asked the colonial authority to increase the powers of the board of ministers without granting popular representation or civil freedoms. Buddhist scholars and the Teetotalist Movement also played a vital role in this time. During World War II, the island served as an important Allied military base. A large segment of the British and American fleet were deployed on the island, as were tens of thousands of soldiers committed to the war against Japan in Southeast Asia.我生j
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Following the war, popular pressure for independence intensified. On February 4, 1948 the country won its independence as the Commonwealth of Ceylon. Don Stephen Senanayake became the first Prime Minister of Sri Lanka. On July 21, 1960 Sirimavo Bandaranaike took office as prime minister, and became the first female head of government in post-colonial Asia and the first female prime minister in the world. In 1972, the country became a republic within the Commonwealth, and the name was changed to Sri Lanka. The island enjoyed good relations with the United Kingdom and had the British Royal Navy stationed at Trincomalee. A来
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Since 1983, there has been on-and-off civil war, predominantly between the government and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE, also known as the Tamil Tigers), a separatist militant organization who fight to create an independent state named Tamil Eelam in the North and East of the island.f年v的
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Main cities in Sri Lanka.The island of Sri Lanka lies in the Indian Ocean, to the southwest of the Bay of Bengal and to the southeast of the Arabian Sea. It is separated from the Indian subcontinent by the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Strait.[12] According to Hindu mythology, a land bridge to the Indian mainland, known as Rama's Bridge, was constructed during the time of Rama by the vanara architect Nala. Often referred to as Adam's Bridge, it now amounts to only a chain of limestone shoals remaining above sea level.[12] According to colonial British reports, this is a natural causeway which was formerly complete, but was breached by a violent storm in 1480.[13] The width of the Palk Strait is small enough for the coast of Sri Lanka to be visible from the furthest point near the Indian town of Rameswaram.[citation needed] The tear drop shaped island consists mostly of flat-to-rolling coastal plains, with mountains rising only in the south-central part. Amongst these are Sri Pada (Adams Peak) and the highest point Pidurutalagala, at 2,524 meters (8,281 ft). The Mahaweli ganga (Mahaweli river) and other major rivers provide fresh water to the population.[14]如
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Topographical map of Sri Lanka.Sri Lanka's climate can be described as tropical, and quite hot. Its position between 5 and 10 north latitude endows the country with a warm climate, moderated by ocean winds and considerable moisture.[15] The mean temperature ranges from a low of 16 °C (61 °F) 3年lin Nuwara Eliya in the Central Highlands (where frost may of月风ccur for several days in the winter) to a high of 32 °C (970 °F) in Trincomalee on the northeast coast (where tempera r不tures may reach 38 °C (100 °F)). The average yearly tempegrature for the country as a whole ranges from 28° to 30 y这°C (82–86 °F). Day and night temperatures may vary by 4 to 7 °C (7–13 °F). In January, the coole如st month, many people wear coats and sweaters in the highla如nds and elsewhere. May, the hottest period, precedes the su如mmer monsoon rains. The rainfall pattern is influenced by t北美文学网he monsoon winds of the Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal, whi 北美枫ech encounter the slopes of the Central Highlands, they unload heavy rains on the mountain slopes and the southwestern 年如1sector of the island. Some of the windward slopes receive u9p to 2,500 millimetres (98 in) of rain per month, but the l8sieeward slopes in the east and northeast receive little rain上. Periodic squalls occur and sometimes tropical cyclones br7ing overcast skies and rains to the southwest, northeast, a北美文学网nd eastern parts of the island. Between December to March, 生9monsoon winds come from the northeast, bringing moisture frxom the Bay of Bengal. Humidity is typically higher in the southwest and mountainous areas and depends on the seasonal 生个patterns of rainfall. At Colombo, for e不xample, daytime humidity stays above 70% all year, rising to almost 90 percent during the monsoon season in June. Anur r这adhapura experiences a daytime low of 60% during the monsoo如n month of March, but a high of 79% during the November andu December rains. In the highlands, Kandy's dayt年3mime humidity usually ranfy3ges between 70 and中 79%.天i
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Mountain forests in Sri Lanka.Main article: Ecology of Sri Lankay 有m
The mountains and the southwestern part of the country, known as the "wet zone," receive ample rainfall (an annual average of 2500 millimetres). Most of the southeast, east, and northern parts of the country comprise the "dry zone," which receives between 1200 and 1900 mm (47–75 in) of rain annually. Much of the rain in these areas falls from October to January; during the rest of the year there is very little precipitation, and all living creatures must conserve precious moisture. The arid northwest and southeast coasts receive the least amount of rain — 600 to 1200 mm (24–47 in) per year — However, though many say that there are no really dry areas in Sri Lanka, there are many pockets of very dry and abandoned areas where there is little to no rainwater. Varieties of flowering acacias are well adapted to the arid conditions and flourish on the Jaffna Peninsula. Among the trees of the dry-land forests are some valuable species, such as satinwood, ebony, ironwood, and mahogany and teak. In the wet zone, the dominant vegetation of the lowlands is a tropical evergreen forest, with tall trees, broad foliage, and a dense undergrowth of vines and creepers.要
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Subtropical evergreen forests resembling those of temperate climates flourish in the higher altitudes. Forests at one time covered nearly the entire island, but by the late 20th century lands classified as forests and forest reserves covered around one-third of the land.[16] As the area covered by forests declined, thereby threatening various species of wildlife, Sri Lanka became the first country in the world to establish a wildlife sanctuary.[17] Among them, the Ruhunu National Park in the southeast prot 1sects herds of elephant, deer, and peacocks, and the Wilpatt全e无u National Park in the northwest preserves the habitats of many water birds, such as storks, pelicans, ibis, and spoonbills. During the Mahaweli Ganga Program of the 1970s and 1全u以980s in northern Sri Lanka, the governmnent set aside four areas of land totaling 1,900 ckm² (730 sq mi) as national parks. The island has threes biosphere reserves, Hurulu, Sinharaja, and the K 们xanneliya-Dediyagala-Nakiyadeniya.e
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The national flower of Sri Lanka is Nil Mahanel (Nympheae stellata),[18] the national tree is Na (Mesua nagassarium)[19] and the national bird is the Sri Lanka Junglefowl, which is endemic to the country.[20] 北美枫l 1k
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The Supreme Court of Sri Lanka, Colombo.Main art人不iicle: Pom我天litics of Sri Lanka北美文学网 北美枫A
The Constitution of Sri Lanka establishes a democratic, socialist republic in Sri Lanka, which is also a unitary state. The government is a mixture of the presidential system and the parliamentary system. The President of Sri Lanka is the head of state, the commander in chief of the armed forces, as well as head of government, and is popularly elected for a six-year term. In the exercise of duties, the President is responsible to the Parliament of Sri Lanka, which is a unicameral 225-member legislature. The President appoints and heads a cabinet of ministers composed of elected members of parliament. The President's deputy is the Prime Minister, who leads the ruling party in parliament and shares many executive responsibilities, mainly in domestic affairs.[21]和
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Members of parliament are elected by universal (adult) suffrage based on a modified proportional representation system by district to a six-year term. The primary modification is that, the party that receives the largest number of valid votes in each constituency gains a unique "bonus seat." The president may summon, suspend, or end a legislative session and dissolve Parliament any time after it has served for one year. The parliament reserves the power to make all laws. On July 1, 1960 the people of Sri Lanka elected the first-ever female head of government in Prime Minister Sirimavo Bandaranaike. Her daughter Chandrika Kumaratunga served multiple terms as prime minister and as president from 1999 to 2005. The current president and prime minister, both of whom took office on November 21, 2005, are Mahinda Rajapaksa and Ratnasiri Wickremanayake respectively.花了北美文学网
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Sri Lanka has enjoyed democracy with universal suffrage since 1931. Politics in Sri Lanka are controlled by rival coalitions led by the left-wing Sri Lanka Freedom Party, headed by President Rajapaksa, the comparatively right-wing United National Party led by former prime minister Ranil Wickremesinghe and Marxist-Nationalist JVP. There are also many smaller Buddhist, socialist and Tamil nationalist political parties that oppose the separatism of the LTTE but demand regional autonomy and increased civil rights. Since 1948, Sri Lanka has been a member of the Commonwealth of Nations and the United Nations. It is also a member of the Non-Aligned Movement, the Colombo Plan, Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation and the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation. Through the Cold War-era, Sri Lanka followed a foreign policy of non-alignment but has remained closer to the United States and Western Europe. The military of Sri Lanka comprises the Sri Lankan Army, the Sri Lankan Navy and the Sri Lankan Air Force. These are administered by the Ministry of Defence. Since the 1980s, the army has led the government response against the Marxist militants of the JVP and now the LTTE militant forces. Sri Lanka receives considerable military assistance from Pakistan and China [22].c年9o
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Sri Lanka was considered one of the "world's most politically unstable countries" by the World Bank and Asian Development Bank in 2004. [2]. The Economist labels Sri Lanka a "flawed democracy" in its 2006 rankings (ranking 57 and positioned among 54 other flawed ranked ones) [3] and Foreign Policy ranks Sri Lanka 25th (Alert Category) in its Failed States Index [4] for 2007. However, Sri Lanka, according to the US State Department in 2005, was classified a "stable democracy" amidst a ceasefire period of the long running civil war [5].这来
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Provinces of Sri LankaMain articles: Provinces of Sri Lanka, Districts of Sri Lanka, and Divisional Secretariats of Sri LankaD要
Sri Lanka is divided into 9 provinces[23] and 25 districts.[24] Each province is administered by a directly-elected provincial council:
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The districts are further subdivided into divisional secretariats, and these in turn to Grama Sevaka divisions.yo
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Sri Lanka's well-known export, Ceylon tea (black)Main artzicle: Economy of S小ri Lanka 生风如
In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Sri Lanka beca 来山me a plantation economy, famous for its production and export of cinnamon, rubber and Ceylon tea, which remains a trademark national export. The development of modern ports under British rule raised the strategic importance of the islannd as a centre of trade. During World War II, the island hos的ted important military installations and Allied forces. Howqever, the plantation economy aggravated poverty and economic inequality. From 1948 to 1977 socialism strongly influenc北美文学网ed the goversnment's economic policies. Colonial plantations were dismanjtled, industries were nationalised and a welfare state established. While the standard of living and literacy improved significantly, the nation's economy suffered from 不inefficien小cy, snlow growth an北美文学网d lack o北美文学网f foreign inves我5天tment.不风
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From 1977 the UNP government began incorpor说们上ating privatisation, deregulation and promotion of private enterprise. While the production and export of tea, rubber, coffee, sugar and other agricultural commodities remains i中mportant, the nation has moved steadily towards an industrit一这alised economy with the development of food processing, tex和tiles, telecommunications and finance. By 1996 plantation crops made up only 20% of export, and further declined to 16 北美枫2.8% in 2005 (compared with 93% in 1970), while textiles and的 garments have reached 63%. The GDP grew at an average annual rate of 5.5% during the early 1990s, until a drought and a de不teriorating security situation lowered growth to 3.8% in 1996. The economy rebounded in 1997-2000, with average growth of 5.3%. The year of 2001 saw the first recession in zthe country's history, as a result of power shortages, budgetary problems, 日the global slowdown, and continuing civil strife. Signs of recovery appeared after the 2002 ceasefire. The Col不ombo Stock Exchange reported the highest growth in the worl北美文学网d for 2003, and today Sri Lanka has the highest per capita jincome in South Aqsia.0
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Arugam Point at the Arugam Bay beach an attractive place 2for tourists.In April 2004, there was a sharp reversal in e上conomic policy after the government headed by Ranil Wickrem日esinghe of the United National Party was defeated by a coal自ition made up of Sri Lanka Freedom Party and the leftist-najtionalist Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna called the United Peopl北美枫5je's Freedom Alliance. The new government stopped the privat k时ization of state enterprises and reforms of state utilities8zh such as power and petroleum, and embarked on a subsidy pro小gram called the Rata Perata economic program. Its main themf4pe to support the rural and suburban SMEs and protect the do年们Amestic economy from external influences, such as o 们uil prices, the World Bank and th以e Internationaul Monet 北美枫这ary Fund.n A
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See also: Tea industry of Sri Lanka and Tourism in Sri Lanka g g
Sri Lanka, with an income per head of $1,350, still lags behind some of its neighbors including Maldives and Mauritius but is ahead of its giant neighbor India. Its economy grew by an average of 5% during the 1990s during the 'War for Peace' era. According to the Sri Lankan central bank statistics, the economy was estimated to have grown by 7% last year, although inflation had reached 20%. It should be noted that Sri Lanka's central bank statistics have been called into question over allegations of political interference and institutional decay [6]. Parts of Sri Lanka, particularly the South and East coast, were devastated by the 2004 Asian Tsunami. The economy was briefly buoyed by an influx of foreign aid and tourists, but this was disrupted with the reemergence of the civil war resulting in increased lawlessness in the country [7] and a sharp decline in tourism [8] [9].t
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Colombo-Galle Face GreenMost Sri Lankan cities and towns are connected by the Sri Lanka Railways, the state-run national railway operator. The first railway line was inaugurated on April 26, 1867, linking Colombo with Kandy. The total length of Sri Lankan roads exceeds 11,000 kilometres (6,840 mi), with a vast majority of them being paved. The government has launched several highway projects to bolster the economy and national transport system, including the Colombo-Katunayake Expressway, the Colombo-Kandy (Kadugannawa) Expressway, the Colombo-Padeniya Expressway and the Outer Circular Highway to ease Colombo's traffic congestion. There are also plans to build a major bridge connecting Jaffna to the Indian city of Chennai.7他
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The Ceylon Transport Board is the state-run agency responsible for operating public bus services across the island. Sri Lanka also maintains 430 kilometres (270 mi) of inland waterways. It has three deep-water ports at Colombo, Trincomalee and Galle. There is also a smaller, shallower harbour at Kankesanturai, north of Jaffna. There are twelve paved airports and two unpaved airstrips in the country. SriLankan Airlines is the official national carrier, partly owned and operated by Emirates Airline. It was voted the best airline in South Asia by Skytrax. SriLankan Air Taxi is the smaller, domestic arm of the national carrier, while Expo Aviation and Lankair are private airline companies. The Bandaranaike International Airport is the country's only international airport, located in Katunayaka, 22 kilometres (14 mi) north of Colombo.t
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Military和
Main article: Military of Sri Lanka个C
Sri Lankan soldiers have taken part in many wars throughout its history, including the Boer War and both World Wars (under the command of the British at the time). In the course of the civil war, the military has been transformed from a ceremonial force to a modern army. Since 2004, Sri Lankan troops have been a part of the UN peacekeeping force in Haiti, which is the country's first major overseas mission.以 sm
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The military of Sri Lanka is organized into three branches: Army, Navy, and Air Force. Since independence, its primary mission has been the targeting of armed groups within the country, most notably engaging in a 25 year long war with the LTTE. The LTTE is proscribed as a terrorist organisation by 32 countries (see list). 一不h
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Human rights个r
Main article: Human rights in Sri Lanka时时
Human Rights situation in Sri Lanka has come under criticism by human rights groups such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch,[10] as well as the United States Department of State[25] and the European Union,[26] have expressed concern about the state of human rights in Sri Lanka. Both the government of Sri Lanka and the separatist Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) are accused of violating human rights. In its 2007 report, however, they stated that "escalating political killings, child recruitment, abductions and armed clashes created a climate of fear in the east, spreading to the north by the end of the year", whilst also outlining concerns with violence against women, the death penalty and "numerous reports of torture in police custody". However, the report also stated that the ceasefire between government and LTTE remained in place despite numerous violations.[27] However, the Sri Lankan minister for HR said “We regret one or two statements made here, that fly in the face of all concrete evidence, that the situation in Sri Lanka is deteriorating, when we have dealt more firmly with terrorism, with far-less damage to civilians, than in any comparative situation.”[28]Foreign Minister Rohitha Bogollagama said, the report presents a distorted view of the actual situation in Sri Lanka during the year 2007 and is a litany of unsubstantiated allegations, innuendo and vituperative exaggerations.[29]北美文学网这
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Sri Lanka's government is labeled as one of the "world's worst perpetrators of enforced disappearances", according to a study by US-based pressure group 'Human Rights Watch' (HRW). An HRW report accuses security forces and pro-government militias of abducting and "disappearing" hundreds of people - mostly Tamils - since 2006. Sri Lanka's government says HRW has exaggerated the scale of the problem. The report said, "The number of disappearances carried out by the Tamil Tigers in government-controlled areas was relatively low. But, the Tigers were responsible for targeted killings, forced child recruitment, bomb attacks on civilians and the repression of basic rights in areas they controlled.". [11]以
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Population growth in Sri Lanka.Main article: Demographics of Sri Lanka年3自
Sri Lanka is the 53rd most populated nation in the world, with an annual population growth rate of 0.79%. Sri Lanka has a birth rate of 15.63 births per 1,000 people and a death rate of 6.49 deaths per 1,000 people. Population density is the greatest in western Sri Lanka, especially in and around Colombo. There is a small population on the island of the Wanniyala-Aetto people, also known as Veddahs. These are believed to be the oldest and indigenous ethnic group to inhabit the island. The Sinhalese people form the largest ethnic group in the nation, composing approximately 81.9% of the total population. Tamils are concentrated in the North, East, Central and Western provinces of the country. Tamils who were brought as indentured labourers from India by British colonists to work on estate plantations, nearly 50% of whom were repatriated following independence in 1948,[30][page # needed] are called "Indian Origin" Tamils. They are distinguished 和from the native Tamil population that has resided in Sri La 人个nka since ancient times. According to 2001 census data Indian Tamils makeup 5.1% of the Sri Lankan population and, Sri Lankan Tamils 4.3%. Though this figurt来pe only accounted for Sri Lankan Tamils in government-controlled areas, not accounting for those in rebel-held territor我ruies. There is a significant population (8.0%) of Moors, who上 trace their lineage to Arab traders and immigrants from the Middle East. Their presence is concentrated in the cities小 and the 6v central andu easter花n provinces. There are also small ethnic groups such as the北美文学网 Burghers (of mixed European descent)国 and Malays f80orom South2east Asia.和自
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The Buddha statue at Mihintale.Sinhalese and Tamil are the two official languages of Sri Lanka. English is spoken by approximately 10% of the population, and is widely used for education, scientific and commercial purposes. Members of the Burgher community speak variant forms of Portuguese Creole and Dutch with varying proficiency, while members of the Malay community speak a form of creole Malay that is unique to the island. Sri Lanka also enjoys significant religious diversity.D
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Hoppers, a Sri Lankan delicacy.Main article: Culture of Sri Lankauw中
The island is the home of two main traditional cultures: the Sinhalese (centered in the ancient cities of Kandy and Anuradhapura) and the Tamil (centered in the city of Jaffna). In more recent times a British colonial culture was added, and lately Sri Lanka, particularly in the urban areas, has experienced a dramatic makeover in the western mold. Until recently, for example, most Sri Lankans, certainly those in the villages, have eaten traditional food, engaged in traditional crafts and expressed themselves through traditional arts. But economic growth and intense economic competition in developed countries has spilled over to most of Sri Lanka, producing changes that might variously be identified as progress, westernisation or a loss of identity and assimilation. 一D
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Elephants at the Esala Perahera.Sri Lankans have added western influences to the customary diet such as rice and curry, pittu (mixture of fresh rice meal, very lightly roasted and mixed with fresh grated coconut, then steamed in a bamboo mould). Kiribath (cooked in thick coconut cream for this unsweetened rice-pudding which is accompanied by a sharp chili relish called "lunumiris"), wattalapam (rich pudding of Malay origin made of coconut milk, jaggery, cashew nuts, eggs, and various spices including cinnamon cloves and nutmeg), kottu, and hoppers ("appa"), batter cooked rapidly in a hot curved pan, accompanied by eggs, milk or savouries. Middle Eastern influences and practices are found in traditional Moor dishes. While Dutch and Portuguese influences are found with the island's Burgher community preserving their culture through traditional favourites such as Lamprais (rice cooked in stock and baked in a banana leaf), Breudher (Dutch Christmas cake) and Bolo Fiado (Portuguese-style layer cake).天这
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Every year on or about April 13th Sinhala and Tamil peopl这e celebrate Sinhala and Tamil New Year Festival, and Muslimss celebrate Ramadan. Esala Perahera (A-suh-luh peh-ruh-ha-ruh) is the grand festival of Esala he全中lld in Sri Lanka. It is very grand with elegant costumes. Hagppening in July or August in Kandy, it has become a unique symbol of Sri Lanka. It is a Buddhist festival consisting of dances and richly-decorated elephants. There are fire-dances, whip-dances, Kandian dances and various other cultural dances. The elephants are usually adorned with lavish garments. The festival ends with the traditional 'diya-kepeema'. The elephant is paraded around the city bearing the tooth of Buddha. However the new year for tamils have been established as being on January 14th from this year.来是
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Kadawunu Poronduwa 1947Sri Lankan cinema in past years has featured subjects such as family relationships, love stories and the years of conflict between the military and Tamil Tiger rebels. Many films are in the Sinhalese language and the Sri Lankan cinematic style is similar to Indian cinema.天4
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The first film to be produced and shown in Sri Lanka was Kadawunu Poronduwa (The Broken Promise) which was released in 1947. The first colour film of Sri Lanka was Ran Muthu Doova.花来
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Afterwards there were many Sinhalese movies produced in Sri Lanka and some of them, such as Nidhanaya, received several international film awards. The most influential filmmaker in the history of Sri Lankan cinema is Lester James Peiris who has directed many movies of excellent quality which led to global acclaim. His latest film, 'Wekanda Walawwa' (Mansion by the Lake) became the first movie to be submitted from Sri Lanka for the Best Foreign Language film award at the Academy Awards. In 2005 the director Vimukthi Jayasundara became the first Sri Lankan to win the prestigious Camera d’Or award for Best First Film, or any award for that matter, at the Cannes Film Festival for his Sinhalese language film Sulanga Enu Pinisa (The Forsaken Land). Controversial filmmaker Asoka Handagama's films are considered by many in the Sri Lankan film world to be the best films of honest response to the ethnic conflict currently raging in the country. Prasanna Vithanage is one of Sri Lanka's most notable filmmakers. His films have won many awards, both local and international. Recent releases like 'Sooriya Arana', 'Samanala thatu', and 'Hiripoda wessa' have attracted Sri Lankans to cinemas. Sri Lankan films are usually in the Sinhalese language. Tamil language movies are also filmed in Sri Lanka but they are not part of Kollywood which is Indian Tamil cinema. However some Kollywood films are based in Sri Lanka as well.m
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Music
The earliest music came from the theater at a time when the traditional open-air drama (referred to in Sinhala as Kolam, Sokari and Nadagam). In 1903 the first music album, Nurthi, was released through Radio Ceylon. Also Vernon Corea introduced Sri Lankan music in the English Service of Radio Ceylon. g 为4
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In the early 1960s, Indian music in films greatly influenced Sri Lankan music and later Sri Lankan stars like Sunil Shantha found greater popularity among Indian people. By 1963, Radio Ceylon had more Indian listeners than Sri Lankan ones. The notable songwriters Mahagama Sekara and Ananda Samarakoon made a Sri Lankan music revolution. At the peak of this revolution, musicians such as W. D. Amaradeva, H.R. Jothipala, Milton Mallawarachchi, M.S. Fernando, Annesley Malewana and Clarence Wijewardene did great work.i dD
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A very popular type of music is the so-called Baila, a kind of dance music that originated from Portuguese music introduced to the island in colonial times.z
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See also: Ceylon tea (black), Cuisine of Sri Lanka, Dances of Sri Lanka, Fashion Industry of Sri Lanka, Cinema of Sri Lanka, and Music of Sri Lanka 花y个
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Religions
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Buddhism is followed by about 70%n有y of the population 自北美枫们为
The Nallur Kandaswamy Kovil, Jaffna is an important place for Hindus in Sri LankaMain article: Religion in Sri Lankar
Sri Lanka has a multi ethnic and multi religious population. Buddhism constitutes the religious faith of about 70% of the population of the island,[31][32] most of whom follow the Theravada school of Buddhism.[33] According to traditional Sri Lankan chronicles, Buddhism was introduced into Sri Lanka in the 2nd century BCE by Venerable Mahinda, the son of the Emperor Ashoka, during the reign of Sri Lanka's King Devanampiyatissa.[33] During this time, a sapling of the Bodhi Tree under which the Buddha attained enlightenment was brought to Sri Lanka and the first monasteries were established under the sponsorship of the Sri Lankan king. The Pali Canon (Thripitakaya), having previously been preserved as an oral tradition, was first committed to writing in Sri Lanka around 30 BC.[34]2说B来
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Sri Lanka has the longest continuous history of Buddhism of any Buddhist nation,[33] with the Sangha having existed in a largely unbroken lineage since its introduction in the 2nd century BCE. During periods of decline, the Sri Lankan monastic lineage was revived through contact with Thailand and Burma.[34] Periods of Mahayana influence, as well as official neglect under colonial rule, created great challenges for Theravada Buddhist institutions in Sri Lanka, but repeated revivals and resurgences — most recently in the 19th century — have kept the Theravada tradition alive for over 2000 years.
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The Jami Ul Alfar mosque in Colombo. Islam was brought to Sri Lanka by Arab MerchantsSri Lanka religiosity r
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The second largest religion is Hinduism. Hinduism was primarily established in Sri Lanka by migrants and often invaders from southern India,[35] and Hindus now constitute seven to fifteen percent of the population,[32][36] mostly of the Shaivite school.[citation needed] Followers of Islam comprise approximately eight percent of the population,[32] having been brought to the island by Arab traders over the course of many centuries[37] European colonists introduced Christianity to the country in the 16th century,[38] and the religion has been adopted by around six percent of the population.[32] There also was a small population of Zoroastrian immigrants from India (Parsis) who settled in Ceylon during the period of British rule. As a result of emigration, few remain, yet they have played a significant role in the growth of the country. The former finance minister of Sri Lanka, Nariman Choksy, was a Parsi. Other famous Parsi families in Sri Lanka include the Captain family and the Pestongee family. g这
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Religion plays an important part in the life and culture 37gof Sri Lankans. The Buddhist majority observe Poya Days, onxce per month according to the Lunar calendar. The Hindus an r山d Muslims also observe their own holidays. There are many Bzuddhist temples in Sri Lanka and many mosques, Hindu templeqs and churches across the island, especially in areas where respective communities are concentrated. Buddhists are dism以在tributed across most parts of the island except in the nortzh. Hindus are concentrated in north, east, and central highz lan国ds. Christians, particularly Roman Catholics are mainly conDcentrated along t r花he western coastal belt. Muslims are concentrated in severa这l pockets along the coast and in interior. All religious co 个时mmunities are represented in western province and in other 日urban centers in sizable numbers.3e国
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Media要
Main article: Media in Sri Lanka的k
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The national radio station, Radio Ceylon is the oldest-running radio station in Asia.[39][40] It was established in 1923 by Edward Harper just three years after broadcasting was launched in Europe.[41] It remains one of the most popular stations in Asia, with its programming reaching neighboring Asian nations. The station is managed by the Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation and broadcasts services in Sinhalese, Tamil, English and Hindi. Since the 1980s, a large number of private radio stations have also being introduced, and they have gained commercial popularity and success. Broadcast television was introduced to the country in 1979 when the Independent Television Network was launched. Initially all Television stations were state controlled, but private television networks began broadcasts in 1992.[42] Global television networks from India, Southeast Asia, Europe and the United States are also widely popular, and cable and satellite television is gaining in popularity with Sri Lanka's middle-class. Popular publications include the English language Daily Mirror and The Sunday Observer and The Sunday Times, Divayina, Lankadeepa and Lakbima in Sinhalese and the Tamil publications Dinakaran and Uthayan.n中u
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Educationur
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University of Colombo Sri Lanka. dc全
University of Kelaniya Sri Lanka.Main article: Education in Sri Lanka了是
With a literacy rate of 92%, and 83% of the total population having had Secondary Education,[43] Sri Lanka has one of the most literate populations amongst developing nations.[44] An education system which dictates 9 years of Compulsory Schooling for every child is in place, with 99% of the children entering the first grade.[43] A free education system initiated in 1945[45] by Dr. C. W. W. Kannangara, a former minister of education, has greatly contributed to this. Mr. Kannangara led the establishment of the Madhya Maha Vidyalayas (Central Schools) in different parts of the country in order to provide education to Sri Lanka's rural population. In 1942 a special education committee proposed extensive reforms to establish an efficient and quality education system for the people.花v
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Most secondary schools in Sri Lanka provide education from grades 1 to 13 in the same institution. Students sit for the GCE Ordinary Level Examination (O/Levels) in grade 11 and the GCE Advanced Level Examination (A/levels) in grade 13, conducted by the Department of Examinations. These schools are modeled on British colleges. A majority of them are public, but a number of private schools do exist. While most reputed schools centered around large cities are usually single-sex institutions, rural schools tend to be coeducational. In recent decades, a large number of international schools have been established across the nation. In these schools General Certificate of Secondary Education, International Baccalaureate and Cambridge International Examinations are popular education programs.月
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See also: List of schools in Sri Lanka 以 l日
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Sri Lanka Institute of Information TechnologySri Lanka ha年人风s a around 16 public universities. They include the Univers和ity of Colombo, the University of Peradeniya, the Universitzy of Kelaniya, the University of Sri Jayewardenepura, the Uqniversity of Moratuwa, the University of Peradeniya, the Unf31iversity of Jaffna, the University of Ruhuna, the Eastern Ueniversity of Sri Lanka, the Sabaragamuwa University of Sri 不Lanka and the Wayamba University of Sri Lanka. However the 何s自lack of space in these institutions and the unwillingness t7o establish private universities has led to a large number 北美文学网of students been denied entry into formal universities as w何Axell as high undergraduate unemployment. As a result, a numb y日er of public and private institutions have emerged, which provide specialised education in a variety of field月s, such as computer science, business自 administration and law. These include the government owned北美枫天n Sri Lanka Institute of Information Technology and 来日 the Institute of Technological 全人wStudies.如这
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Sports不一0
See also: Cricket in Sri Lanka 春j
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A Test match between Sri Lanka and England at the SCC Ground, Colombo, March 2001.While the national sport in Sri Lanka is volleyball,[46] by far the most popular sport in the country is cricket.[46] Rugby union also enjoys extensive popularity, as do aquatic sports, athletics, Football (soccer) and tennis. Sri Lanka's schools and colleges regularly organize sports and athletics teams, competing on provincial and national levels. The Sri Lankan cricket team achieved considerable success beginning in the 1990s, rising from underdog status to winning the 1996 World Cup,[47] as well as the Asia Cup in 1996 and 2004. Sri Lanka remains one of the leading cricketing nations in the world, with the national team reaching the finals of Cricket World Cup 2007, where they lost to Australia.[48]ej
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Sri Lanka has a large number of sports stadiums, including the Sinhalese Sports Club Ground, the R. Premadasa Stadium and the Rangiri Dumbulla Stadium in Dambulla as well as the Galle International Stadium. The country co-hosted the 1996 Cricket World Cup with India and Pakistan, and has hosted the Asia Cup tournament on numerous occasions. It will also co-host the 2011 Cricket World Cup. Aquatic sports such as boating, surfing, swimming and scuba diving on the coast, the beaches and backwaters attract a large number of Sri Lankans and foreign tourists.春
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Failed state上y
See also: Failed state 大春
Sri Lanka has managed get into the top 20 Failed States Index 2008 by the Foreign Policy and The Fund for Peace [49] which rank the countries where state collapse may be just one disaster away. Sri Lanka has been ranked 20 in the list of 60 failed states with Somalia claiming the number one spot and the distinction of being the state most at risk of failure.C
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References 生g
^ Official Website of Sri Lanka tourist Board - Facts at a glance 9y
^ Sri Lanka: Parliament History kz
^ Department of Census and Statist2ics Estimated mid year population by sf有2ex and age, 20何无t03 - 2005 北美枫何u
^ British Prime Minister Winston Churchill described the moment a Japanese fleet prepared to invade Sri Lanka as "the most dangerous and distressing moment of the entire conflict." - Commonwealth Air Training Program Museum, The Saviour of Ceylon 个j
^ Abeydeera, Ananda. In Search of4 Taprobane: the Western dis天covery and mapping of Ceylon. Retrieved on 2007-06-04. 5 lj
^ "Sri Lanka - The Pearl of the Orient" . Metropolis. Retrieved on 2007-06-04. 了以
^ Rajasingham, K T. "Sri Lanka: The untold story". Asia Times. Retrieved on 2007-06-04. 何3的风
^ Zubair, Lareef. Etymologies of Lanka, Serendib, Taprobane and Ceylon. Retrieved on 2007-06-04. y
^ "Chapter I - The People, The State And Sovereignty" . THe Constitution Of The Democratic Socialist Republic Of Sri Lanka. Retrieved on 2007-06-04. 是自
^ de Silva, Colin. "Sri Lanka, The 'Resplendent Isle'", The New York Times, February 14, 1982. Retrieved on 2007-06-04. 时9
^ Keshavadas, Sant (1988). Ramayana at a Glance. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 8120805453. w何z
^ a b BBC News, Gods row minister offers to quit, September 15, 2007 来我d
^ Rediff, Ramar Sethu, a world heritage centre?, July 4, 2007 我他 v
^ Paranavitana, Senarat; Nicholas, Cyril Wace (1961). A Concise History of Ceylon. Colombo: Ceylon University Press, p.2-5. OCLC 465385. 风 l中
^ BBC Weather', Country Guide: Sri Lanka 不f大
^ EarthTrends, Environmental Information, Forests, Grasslands, and Drylands-- Sri Lanka 北美枫
^ Sri Lanka Wildlife Conservation Society, [1] g如
^ Government of Sri Lankao Official7 Web Portal, National Fl北美文学网ower 人时t
^ Government of Sri Lanka Official Web Portal, National Tree C
^ Government of Sri Lanka Official Web Portal, National Bird hv
^ The Constitution of Sri Lanka - CONTENTS t
^ Bedi, Rahul. "Sri Lanka turns to Pakistan, China for military needs", IANS, Urdustan.com Network, 2007-06-02. Retrieved on 2007-06-02. 7的
^ Constitution of Sri Lanka, Eighth Schedule 我A
^ Constitution of Sri Lanka, First Schedule 何k
^ Sri Lanka y花5
^ The EU's re说风和lations8们2 with Sri 北美文学网Lanka - Overview 自
^ Amnesty International 7个
^ :. NewsLine : Minister sets the record straight on Sri Lanka’s human rights situation .: ht
^ :. NewsLine : US Report: Dis月tocrted view to denigrate Sri Lanka c不c
^ Hoole, Rajan (2001). Sri Lanka: The Arrogance of Power. University Teachers for Human Rights (Jaffna). ISBN 978-9559447047. 9这
^ Sri Lanka. Imnternational Religious Freedom Report 2007. Bureau of Democracy, Huma了无8n Rights, and Labor (2007-09-14). Retrieved on 2008s-03-30. 我k1时
^ a b c d The World Factbook: Sri Lanka. CIA World Factbook. Retrieved on 2006-08-12. w个他
^ a b c Buddhism in Sri Lanka, Buddhist Studies c风
^ a b Theravada Buddhism and Shan/Thai/Dai/L北美文学网aos Regions, Maung Chan, 2005-03-28 北美枫92 北美文学网人
^ Hinduism In Sri Lanka, Discover Sri Lanka 以
^ U.S. Department of States - International Religious Freedom Report 2007: Sri Lanka ux
^ Lankan Muslims' historical links with India, Indian Muslims, April 3, 2006 何j
^ Young, R. F., & Sēnānāyaka, J. E. B. (1998), The carpenter-heretic: a collection of Buddhist stories about Christianity from 18th century Sri Lanka, Colombo: Karunaratne & Sons. 的r
^ ApacheCon, Sri Lanka i说我生
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^ Press reference, SRI LANKA Press, Medioa, TV, Radio, Newspapers 如2
^ a b Figures as of 2004/2005. UNICEF, Sri Lanka: Statistics h风
^ Chandra Gunawardene, Problems of illiteracy in a literate developing society B自这
^ De Silva, K.M. (1981). A Short History of Sri Lanka. Lo 来是s An花geles: University of California Press,何日在 472. ISBN 0-520-04320x-0. 年Dc以
^ a b Sri Lanka development gateway, Sports 0北美枫
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^ Cricinfo, Final: Australia v Sri Lanka at Bridgetown, Apr 28, 2007 g北美文学网
^ Foreign Policy and The Fund for Peace, The Failed States Index 2008 8r是
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Further readingc个
Brow, James: Vedda villages of Anuradhapura: The historical anthropology Of a community in Sri Lanka, University Of Washington Press, Seattle, 1978. 一c
Codrington, H. W.: A Short History of Ceylon, New Delhi 1994 (Reprint. Asian Educational Services) 风wk
De Silva, Chandra Richard: Sri Lanka - A History, New Delhi 1987 (Second, revised edition 1997) 来花l
De Silva, K. M.: A History of Sri Lanka. New Delhi, Penguin, xvii, p. 782, 2005. e
Devendra, T. and D. Gunasena: Sri Lanka: The Emerald I和sland, (New Delhi 1996), 天Roli Books. 小m
Domroes, Manfred: After the Tsunami: Relief and rehabilitation in Sri Lanka, New Delhi, Mosaic Books, 1st ed. 2006. 上t
Gunaratne, Shelton A.: The Taming of the Press in Sri Lanka. Journalism Monographs No. 39, May 1975. d来3m有
Johnson, B. L. C., and M. Le M. Scrivenor.: Sri Lanka Land, People and Economy, Heinemann Educational Books Ltd, London, 1981. 天7
Knox, Robert: An Historical Relation of the Island of Cey人2无lon in the East Indies, New Delhi 200日4 (Reprint. Asian Educational Services) s如
Mendis, G.C.: Ceylon Today and Yesterday, Colombo 1957 (Third edition 1995) 的上
Sedere, Upali M.: Context of Educational Reforms Then andk Now: 121st C. W. W. Kannangara *Memorial Address, Ministry of Education, Isurupaya, Battaramulla, October 13, 2005 2
Smith, Vincent A.: The Oxford History of India, Oxford 1958 (4th edition 1981) v 日l
Williams, Harry: Ceylon Pearl of the East, Robert Hale Limited, London, Great Britain, 1950. 以 A
Williams, H.: Ceylon : Pzeearl of the East Delhi, 个y Surjeet, 2002 j 1上
Philippe Gilber r们t: Les上 Larmes de Ceylan是 Ed. des Eq kyuateurs, France和, 2005以
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